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| Bijdr. fl. Ned. Ind. 17: 1168 (1827). | |||
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| Euphorbiaceae (APG: Phyllanthaceae) | |||
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| 2n = 98 | |||
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| Bishopwood, Java cedar, Javanese bishopwood, toog tree, koka (En). | |||
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| The natural occurrence of Bischofia javanica extends from India and the lower Himalayas through China, southern Japan and tropical Asia to north-eastern Australia and the Pacific. It is locally planted in its natural area of distribution and elsewhere, including East Africa and South Africa. In Kenya it is planted as a plantation species, e.g. in the Kakamega area. Locally it has become naturalized in evergreen forest. | |||
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| Bishopwood is used in construction for beams, posts, docks, bridges and decking, and also for flooring, joinery, interior finish, mine props, railway sleepers, furniture, lining, agricultural implements, carving, pencils and billiard cue butts. It is a potential source of long fibres for pulp and paper production, and is also suitable for the production of veneer and plywood. It is not a good firewood, but suitable for making charcoal. In Polynesia a red dye is extracted from the bark. The bark also contains tannin, used for toughening nets and ropes. The young soft leaves are cooked and eaten as a vegetable. In southern Laos the leaves are eaten after dipping into chilli sauce. The seed oil is used as lubricant. In India and the Pacific Bischofia javanica is considered an excellent shade tree, e.g. in coffee and cardamom plantations. It has been widely planted as a roadside tree and for landscaping, but its superficial roots may lift sidewalks and in some areas this use is now discouraged. In China the roots are used as a medicine against rheumatic pain and malaria. In India the bark is used for the treatment of tuberculosis, body ache, stomach ulcers, mouth ulcers and inflammatory conditions. | |||
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| Bishopwood is mostly consumed locally, but is a commercial hardwood in Papua New Guinea. No information is available on international trade. | |||
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| The heartwood is purplish brown to reddish brown, darkening upon exposure; it is sharply demarcated from the narrow, pale brown to pale reddish brown sapwood. The grain is generally interlocked, texture moderately fine to rather coarse and even. The wood surface is rather dull to slightly glossy. Fresh wood smells of vinegar. Bishopwood is medium-weight to moderately heavy and moderately hard to hard. The density is (550–)670–845 kg/m³ at 12% moisture content. The wood is difficult to air dry because of its tendency to check, split and warp, especially in back-sawn boards. Defects may be diminished by quarter sawing. The rates of shrinkage are moderate, from green to oven dry 3.1–3.9% radial and 7.5–7.9% tangential. Air drying of 2 cm thick boards from green to 30% moisture content takes 2 months. Kiln drying requires a mild schedule. At 12% moisture content, the modulus of rupture is 102–111 N/mm², modulus of elasticity 10,500–11,455 N/mm², compression parallel to grain 46–60 N/mm², shear 17–21 N/mm², Janka side hardness 7450–8200 N and Janka end hardness 9600–11,300 N. The wood is rather difficult to saw when dry, but more easy before drying. Planing, shaping, mortising, boring, turning and sanding give good to very good results. Good veneer can be produced at a peeling angle of 92° without pre-treatment, but the veneer is wavy after drying. Gluing the veneer with urea-formaldehyde produces a plywood of fair quality. Bishopwood is classified as moderately durable. It is susceptible to Lyctus and termite attacks, whereas its susceptibility to wood-rotting fungi varies from not resistant to resistant. Longhorn and ambrosia beetles have also been recorded. The heartwood is difficult to treat with copper-chrome-arsenic preservative by the vacuum-pressure process, but the sapwood can be easily penetrated by preservatives. The wood contains 49–51% cellulose, 23–42% lignin, 9.7–14.4% pentosan, 0.4–1.1% ash and 0.4–1.7% silica. The solubility is 1.4–8.0% in alcohol-benzene, 4.1% in cold water, 5.0–5.8% in hot water and 11.1–29.4% in a 1% NaOH solution. Sulphate pulping yields a pulp with a high overall strength; hence a strong paper can be manufactured from bishopwood. The bark contains about 16% tannin. Bischofia javanica has been shown to have anti-ulcer, anthelmintic and antidysenteric activities. The seed contains about 20% oil with an approximate fatty acid composition of: linolenic acid 51%, linoleic acid 12%, oleic acid 23% and saturated acids 14%. | |||
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| Evergreen or deciduous, dioecious, medium-sized to fairly large tree up to 35(–50) m tall; bole straight or poorly shaped, branchless part usually short but sometimes up to 20 m long, up to 80(–170) cm in diameter, sometimes with steep buttresses up to 3 m high; bark surface fissured and scaly with small thick shaggy scales, reddish brown to purplish brown, inner bark fibrous, spongy, pink, exuding a red sap; crown dense and rounded. Leaves arranged spirally, compound with 3 leaflets, glabrous; stipules oblong-triangular, 7–22 mm long, papery, falling early; petiole 8–20 cm long; petiolules long and slender, longest in terminal leaflet; leaflets elliptical to ovate, 6–16 cm × 3–10 cm, base rounded to broadly cuneate, apex acuminate, margin finely toothed, pinnately veined. Inflorescence an axillary panicle up to 27 cm long. Flowers unisexual, regular, 5-merous, small, greenish, corolla and disk absent; male flowers with sepals fused at base, hooded, stamens free, opposite to the calyx lobes, ovary rudimentary; female flowers with sepals falling early, stamens strongly rudimentary, ovary superior, globose, 3(–4)-celled, style short, with 3 long stigmas. Fruit a globose drupe 1–1.5 cm in diameter, bluish black, with a horny to leathery skin and fleshy pulp, 3–6-seeded. Seeds oblong to obovoid, c. 5 mm long, brown. Seedling with epigeal germination; cotyledons leafy, petiolate; first few leaves simple, subsequent ones with 1 leaflet, and from about the 10th leaf with 3 leaflets. The seedlings show fast root growth. The taproot is tuberous for a short length and then tapers quickly. Thin but long secondary roots are present below the collar region. Growth is comparatively slow during the first 3 years, becoming fairly rapid in subsequent years. In India, 7-months-old seedlings attained a height of 50–80 cm. Under normal conditions, an average annual diameter increment of 1.0 cm and an average annual height increment of 1 m can be obtained. Exceptions have been reported, e.g. a diameter at breast height of 41 cm for 18-year-old trees and a height of 7.5 m for 3-year-old trees and of 10 m for 6-year-old trees. The tree flowers every year from an age of about 8 years onward. Bischofia comprises 2 species, one of which only occurs in China. | |||
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| Bischofia javanica prefers areas with a humid climate with a more or less distinct dry season. Its altitudinal range is from sea-level to 1800 m. In its natural area of distribution it is fairly common, but usually found scattered in primary and old secondary forest, from dry and deciduous to evergreen forest. It is most frequent on river banks, shady ravines and prefers deep, loose soils with sufficient water content. In Kenya it has become naturalized locally as an understorey tree in evergreen forest at 1500–1800 m altitude. | |||
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| Bischofia javanica is well suited for large-scale plantations. It can be propagated by seed, wildlings and stem cuttings. One kg contains 60,000–90,000 dry seeds. Seed may be collected in large quantities and can be stored for up to 6 months. It is tolerant of drying, but not of freezing. Seed may be sown under shade or in full sunlight, provided watering is adequate. Germination starts 1–3 weeks after sowing and after 5–6 weeks about 70% of the seed has germinated. Young plants need plenty of water; therefore, direct sowing in the field is not appropriate. Containerized and bare-rooted seedlings planted under shade in the field showed 90% and 50–70% survival, respectively. Stumps should be robust and at least 2.5 cm in diameter, to give a survival of close to 100%. Recommended shoot and root length are 20 cm and 30 cm, respectively. The survival rate drops sharply when thinner stumps are used. In Java bishopwood has been planted in pure stands at 2 m × 3 m, and in mixed plantations in alternating rows with Calophyllum inophyllum L. and Bombax ceiba L. at 1 m × 3 m, and with Acacia mearnsii De Wild. at 2.5 m × 5 m. Self-pruning of thick branches is good once the canopy closes, which takes at least 5 years at a spacing of 2 m × 3 m. Planting at a closer spacing is recommended to reduce this period. Pruning wounds heal very well; the tree may survive girdling involving the removal of a strip of bark 30 cm wide. Bischofia javanica has become a weed in Florida. Roots spread superficially and the tree resprouts vigorously after cutting, making it difficult to eradicate. In Java young trees are heavily attacked by top and twig borers, causing forked stems and even failure of plantations in less suitable locations. On favourable sites, the trees can grow rapidly and survive attack. Several fungi and insects attack the tree in its natural habitat, but little is known about diseases and pests in Africa. In China Pseudocercospora bischofiae is host-specific to bishopwood and appears to be a candidate agent for biological control for Bischofia javanica. In Java an 8-year-old pure plantation on a moderately fertile soil and with a planting space of 2 m × 3 m yielded 12 m³/ha of clear-bole wood. | |||
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| Bischofia javanica has a large area of distribution and is planted in trial plantations, so it does not seem to be endangered. No conservation of genetic material, nor any activities related to selection or breeding have been reported. | |||
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| Because it frequently contains defects and has interlocked grain, bishopwood is less suitable for sawn wood applications. However, it is useful for bridge building and for other outdoor applications. Good-quality plywood and paper can be manufactured from it and bishopwood shows several positive features for the establishment of plantations, in pure or mixed stands. Selection or breeding of borer-resistant trees would make it more worthwhile to plant Bischofia javanica on less favourable soils. More research is needed into silvicultural aspects. For landscaping, better alternatives are generally available. Some caution is needed in using Bischofia javanica for timber plantations because it may behave as a weed that is difficult to eradicate. | |||
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| • CAB International, 2005. Forestry Compendium. Bischofia javanica. [Internet] http://www.cabicompendium.org/ fc/datasheet.asp?ccode=biscja&country=0. Accessed December 2010. • Carter, S. & Radcliffe-Smith, A., 1988. Euphorbiaceae (part 2). In: Polhill, R.M. (Editor). Flora of Tropical East Africa. A.A. Balkema, Rotterdam, Netherlands. pp. 409–597. • Kiefer, S. & Bussmann, R.W., 2008. Household energy demand and its challenges for forest management in the Kakamega area, Western Kenya. Ethnobotany Research & Applications 6: 363–371. • Sunarno, B., Martawijaya, A. & Wheeler, E., 1995. Bischofia Blume. In: Lemmens, R.H.M.J., Soerianegara, I. & Wong, W.C. (Editors). Plant Resources of South-East Asia No 5(2). Timber trees: Minor commercial timbers. Backhuys Publishers, Leiden, Netherlands. pp. 84–88. • World Agroforestry Centre, undated. Agroforestree Database. [Internet] World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF), Nairobi, Kenya. http://www.worldagroforestry.org/ resources/databases/ agroforestree. Accessed December 2010. | |||
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| • Bolza, E. & Kloot, N.H., 1972. The mechanical properties of 56 Fijian timbers. Technological Paper No 62. Division of Forest Products, CSIRO, Melbourne, Australia. 51 pp. • Burgess, P.F., 1966. Timbers of Sabah. Sabah Forest Records No 6. Forest Department, Sabah, Sandakan, Malaysia. 501 pp. • Eddowes, P.J., 1977. Commercial timbers of Papua New Guinea, their properties and uses. Forest Products Research Centre, Department of Primary Industry, Port Moresby, Papua New Guinea. 195 pp. • Kathriarachchi, H., Hoffmann, P., Samuel, R., Wurdack, K.J. & Chase, M.W., 2005. Molecular phylogenetics of Phyllanthaceae inferred from five genes (plastid atpB, matK, 3’ndhF, rbcL, and nuclear PHYC). Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 36: 112–134. • Martawijaya, A., Kartasujana, I., Kadir, K. & Prawira, S.A., 1992. Indonesian wood atlas. Volume 2. Forest Products Research and Development Centre, Bogor, Indonesia. 168 pp. • Tanaka, T., Nonaka, G.I., Nishioka, I., Kouno, I. & Ho, F.C., 1995. Bischofianin, a dimeric dehydroellagitannin from Bischofia javanica. Phytochemistry 38(2): 509–513. • Whitmore, T.C., 1983. Staphyleaceae. In: Whitmore, T.C. (Editor). Tree flora of Malaya. A manual for foresters. 2nd edition. Vol. 1. Malayan Forest Records No 26. Forest Research Institute Malaysia. Longman Malaysia SDN. Berhad, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. pp. 446–447. • WHO, 2009. Medicinal plants in Papua New Guinea. World Health Organization, West Pacific Region, Geneva, Switzerland. 313 pp. • Yang, J.-C., Lin, T.-P. & Kuo, S.-R., 2006. Seed storage behavior of Sapium discolor Muell.-Arg. and Bischofia javanica Blume. Taiwan Journal of Forest Science 21(4): 433–445. • Zheng, H., Wu, Y., Ding, J., Binion, D., Fu, W. & Reardon, R., 2004. Bischofia javanica (Bishopwood). In: Invasive plants of Asian origin established in the United States and their natural enemies. Vol. 1. USDA Forest Service, Morgantown (WV), United States. pp. 34–35. | |||
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| • Sunarno, B., Martawijaya, A. & Wheeler, E., 1995. Bischofia Blume. In: Lemmens, R.H.M.J., Soerianegara, I. & Wong, W.C. (Editors). Plant Resources of South-East Asia No 5(2). Timber trees: Minor commercial timbers. Backhuys Publishers, Leiden, Netherlands. pp. 84–88. | |||
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| Oyen, L.P.A., 2011. Bischofia javanica Blume. [Internet] Record from PROTA4U. Lemmens, R.H.M.J., Louppe, D. & Oteng-Amoako, A.A. (Editors). PROTA (Plant Resources of Tropical Africa / Ressources végétales de l’Afrique tropicale), Wageningen, Netherlands. <http://www.prota4u.org/search.asp>. Accessed . | |||
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| General importance |  |
| Geographic coverage Africa |  |
| Geographic coverage World | |
| Vegetables | |
| Dye and tannins use | |
| Ornamental use |  |
| Timber use | |
| Fuel use | |
| Medicinal use | |
| Essential oil and exudate use | |
| Fibre use | |
| Food security | |
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