Xymalos monospora

Family

Monimiaceae

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Chromosome number

2n = 38, 40, 42

Synonyms

Vernacular names

Lemonwood, wild lemon (En).

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Origin and geographic distribution

Xymalos monospora is widespread, occurring from Cameroon and Equatorial Guinea eastward to southern Sudan, Uganda and Kenya, and southward to Zimbabwe, Mozambique, South Africa and Swaziland. It has been introduced in India, where it is cultivated sporadically.

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Uses

The wood is used for light construction, posts, door frames, flooring, joinery, furniture, vehicle bodies, railway sleepers, toys, novelties, boxes, crates, agricultural implements, utensils handles, beehives, brush backs, carvings, turnery, veneer, plywood and pulp and paper products.
Fruits are eaten. The bark, roots and leaves are used in traditional medicine. Root-bark extracts are applied to treat insect stings and bites. In DR Congo a decoction of the pounded bark is drunk to cure colic, and Zulu people in South Africa use the bark for the same purpose. In Kenya dried and pounded roots are applied to wounds and soft leaves are also used as a wound dressing. In Tanzania leaves are pounded together with ginger and the resulting paste is given to children to treat cough. In Burundi leaf decoctions are drunk to treat coughing and to expel the placenta. For whooping cough the ash of burnt leaves is taken. Leaf decoctions or a decoction of root bark and twigs are taken or used as an enema to treat diarrhoea. Leaves are added to drinking water of cattle as a cure for East Coast fever.

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Production and international trade

The wood of Xymalos monospora is mainly used locally and probably only traded in small volumes internationally under the trade names ‘lemonwood’ and ‘bogabog’. Production and trade statistics are not available. Bark, roots and leaves are commonly sold on local markets for medicinal purposes.

Properties

The heartwood is lemon-yellow to pale brown or greenish brown and not distinctly demarcated from the slightly paler, 2.5–4 cm wide sapwood. The grain is straight, texture fine and even. Quarter-sawn surfaces show an attractive silver-grain figure. Freshly cut wood has a molasses-like scent.
The wood is medium-weight, with a density of 510–610(–670) kg/m³ at 12% moisture content. It is difficult to air dry; the heartwood dries very slowly and is subject to collapse and honeycombing if dried too rapidly. It takes about 9 months to air dry 2.5 cm thick boards to 12% moisture content. Kiln drying is impracticable. The rates of shrinkage are moderately high, from green to oven dry 2.7–3.1% radial and 8.8–10.3% tangential. Once dry, the wood is moderately stable in service.
At 12% moisture content, the modulus of rupture is 66–89 N/mm², modulus of elasticity 8750–11,560 N/mm², compression parallel to grain 43–54 N/mm², shear 10.5–12 N/mm², Janka side hardness 3560–3650 N and Janka end hardness 4450 N.
The wood, both green and dry, is easy to saw and work, with little blunting effect on saw teeth and cutting edges. It planes well with a good finish. The wood shows good mortising, drilling and moulding characteristics. It nails well with satisfactory nail-holding power and little tendency to splitting. It is easy to polish and varnish. It turns well, but because it is quite soft some care is needed in finishing. The wood is moderately durable. The sapwood is fairly resistant to Lyctus attack. The heartwood is resistant and the sapwood moderately resistant to impregnation with preservatives.

Description

Evergreen, dioecious shrub or small to medium sized tree up to 20(–27) m tall; bole usually branchless for only 3–9 m, often crooked, up to 60 cm in diameter; bark surface pale to dark grey or yellowish brown, flaking off in large scales to leave conspicuous concentric ridged markings, inner bark pale brown to pinkish brown, with reddish exudate; crown rounded, dense; branches glabrous. Leaves opposite, simple; stipules absent; petiole 0.5–3 cm long; blade elliptical to obovate, 4–20 cm × 1.5–10 cm, cuneate at base, rounded to acute or short-acuminate at apex, margin entire to irregularly and coarsely glandular toothed, thinly leathery, glabrous, with transparent gland dots, pinnately veined with 6–9 pairs of lateral veins. Inflorescence an axillary raceme or panicle 1–5(–7) cm long, velvety short-hairy. Flowers unisexual, regular, greenish, small, with perianth 1–2 mm long; male flowers with 4–6-lobed perianth and 6–15 stamens; female flowers with 3–5-lobed perianth and superior ovary, stigma sessile, thick. Fruit an ovoid to ellipsoid drupe 0.5–1.5(–2.5) cm long, fleshy, glabrous, orange or red, with persistent stigma, 1-seeded. Seeds ellipsoid, compressed, c. 1 cm long, white. Seedling with epigeal germination.

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Other botanical information

Xymalos comprises a single species. The leaves have a lemon scent when crushed and have a slightly ‘quilted’ appearance because of the lateral veins which are sunken above and prominent below, and this, together with the conspicuous rings, rectangles and whorls which are exposed when patches of bark flake off, make identification of this species in the field easy.

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Anatomy

Wood-anatomical description (IAWA hardwood codes):
Growth rings: 2: growth ring boundaries indistinct or absent. Vessels: 5: wood diffuse-porous; 12: solitary vessel outline angular; 14: scalariform perforation plates; (15: scalariform perforation plates with ≤ 10 bars); 16: scalariform perforation plates with 10–20 bars; (17: scalariform perforation plates with 20–40 bars); 20: intervessel pits scalariform; 21: intervessel pits opposite; 27: intervessel pits large (≥ 10 μm); (31: vessel-ray pits with much reduced borders to apparently simple: pits rounded or angular); 32: vessel-ray pits with much reduced borders to apparently simple: pits horizontal (scalariform, gash-like) to vertical (palisade); 41: mean tangential diameter of vessel lumina 50–100 μm; 48: 20–40 vessels per square millimetre. Tracheids and fibres: 61: fibres with simple to minutely bordered pits; 65: septate fibres present; 69: fibres thin- to thick-walled. Axial parenchyma: 75: axial parenchyma absent or extremely rare; 78: axial parenchyma scanty paratracheal. Rays: 98: larger rays commonly 4- to 10-seriate; 99: larger rays commonly > 10-seriate; 102: ray height > 1 mm; 103: rays of two distinct sizes; (105: all ray cells upright and/or square); 109: rays with procumbent, square and upright cells mixed throughout the ray; (110: sheath cells present); 114: ≤ 4 rays per mm; 115: 4–12 rays per mm.
(R. Shanda, P. Baas & H. Beeckman)

Growth and development

Xymalos monospora flowers between June and October. The fruits appear from November to May. They take about a year to ripen from green to orange or red, and are eaten by birds, chimpanzees, gorillas and monkeys, which disperse the seeds. Field observations in south-eastern Kenya revealed that dispersal and natural regeneration depend to a large extent on fruit eating birds and that fragmentation of forests directly affects these birds and indirectly seed dispersal of Xymalos monospora.
Old, dying and collapsing trees usually coppice profusely from the base and form dense stands providing deep shade, which suppresses reproduction of other plants.

Ecology

Xymalos monospora occurs scattered or sometimes co-dominant in the sub-canopy of evergreen forest up to 3000 m altitude. Close to the equator it is most often found in mountain ranges; for example in DR Congo it is restricted to forest at altitudes of over 1600 m, extending to 3000 m into the bamboo zone. The tree is resistant to fire.

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Propagation and planting

Xymalos monospora is propagated by fresh seed. The 1000-seed weight ranges from 68 g to 158 g. The seeds are recalcitrant and should be packed in cotton bags in quantities of less than 5 kg. They cannot tolerate desiccation below 20% moisture content and should be stored at room temperature and sown within 6 weeks after collection. Although germination is slow, the germination rate is quite high. It reaches 50% 6 weeks after sowing and 95% after 10 weeks.

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Management

An inventory conducted in Uganda reported 850 plants (all size classes) of Xymalos monosperma per ha in natural forest, and only 5 per ha in formerly cultivated areas. In forest in Tanzania on average 29 trees with a bole diameter of more than 10 cm were recorded per ha.
Xymalos monospora is uncommon in farmland and plantations, and only few people grow it in their homestead. Because it may form dense stands which shade and suppress other plants, it is unsuitable for planting in arable land. Most people still harvest plant parts from the forest when they need them.

Diseases and pests

The leaves of Xymalos monospora are consumed by the larvae of the butterfly Papilio dardanus (Mocker swallowtail). No important diseases has been reported.

Harvesting

Defects of logs include irregular shape and heart rot.

Handling after harvest

Deep surface checks develop rapidly in logs after harvesting. Losses during sawing are quite high.

Genetic resources and breeding

Xymalos monospora is not under threat of genetic erosion because it is widespread and common and its wood is not much used. Moreover, the wood does not seem to be suitable as firewood and for charcoal production, and therefore is not heavily exploited. There is no information suggesting that it is protected anywhere. The habitat of the mountain gorilla in the Great Lakes Region is fairly well protected, and Xymalos monospora is likely to profit as well from this protection. In some regions natural populations have declined due to forest clearing for cultivation and its poor regeneration in fallow. Systematic germplasm collection has not been done.

Prospects

Xymalos monospora produces timber of commercial value with good working characteristics, but with a high conversion loss and needing a long time to dry. In addition, the timber is only available in small quantities because larger trees are often found scattered. However, it will remain an important source of wood for local uses, especially for handicraft and construction purposes. It might be interesting for cultivation as a timber tree of more commercial importance, but research on the silvicultural characteristics would be required as well as on propagation techniques and growth rates. Xymalos monospora is not only a source of timber but also of medicine and edible fruits. As an important and widely used medicinal plant, Xymalos monospora deserves more research on its active compounds. Protection and domestication of Xymalos monospora should be considered with a view to attain sustainable exploitation of this important multipurpose tree.

Major references

• Bolza, E. & Keating, W.G., 1972. African timbers: the properties, uses and characteristics of 700 species. Division of Building Research, CSIRO, Melbourne, Australia. 710 pp.
• Burkill, H.M., 1997. The useful plants of West Tropical Africa. 2nd Edition. Volume 4, Families M–R. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, Richmond, United Kingdom. 969 pp.
• Bryce, J.M., 1967. The commercial timbers of Tanzania. Tanzania Forest Division, Utilisation Section, Moshi, Tanzania. 139 pp.
• Lovett, J.C., Ruffo, C.K., Gereau, R.E. & Taplin, J.R.D., 2007. Field guide to the moist forest trees of Tanzania. [Internet] Centre for Ecology Law and Policy, Environment Department, University of York, York, United Kingdom. http://celp.org.uk/ projects/ tzforeco/. Accessed December 2011.
• Palmer, E. & Pitman, N., 1972–1974. Trees of southern Africa, covering all known indigenous species in the Republic of South Africa, South-West Africa, Botswana, Lesotho and Swaziland. 3 volumes. Balkema, Cape Town, South Africa. 2235 pp.
• Stannard, B.L., 1997. Monimiaceae. In: Pope, G.V. (Editor). Flora Zambesiaca. Volume 9, part 2. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, Richmond, United Kingdom. pp. 42–44.
• Takahashi, A., 1978. Compilation of data on the mechanical properties of foreign woods (part 3) Africa. Shimane University, Matsue, Japan. 248 pp.
• van Vuuren, N.J.J., Banks, C.H. & Stohr, H.P., 1978. Shrinkage and density of timbers used in the Republic of South Africa. Bulletin No 57. South African Forestry Research Institute, Pretoria, South Africa. 55 pp.
• Verdcourt, B., 1968. Monimiaceae. In: Milne-Redhead, E. & Polhill, R.M. (Editors). Flora of Tropical East Africa. Crown Agents for Oversea Governments and Administrations, London, United Kingdom. 4 pp.
• Wimbush, S.H., 1957. Catalogue of Kenya timbers. 2nd reprint. Government Printer, Nairobi, Kenya. 74 pp.

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Other references

• Baerts, M. & Lehmann, J., 2011. Xymalos monospora. [Internet] Prelude Medicinal Plants Database. Metafro-Infosys, Royal Museum for Central Africa, Tervuren, Belgium http://www.metafro.be/prelude. Accessed December 2011.
• Bryce, J.M., 1966. The strength properties of Tanzania timbers. Technical Note No 35. Tanzania Forest Division, Utilisation Section, Moshi, Tanzania. 17 pp.
• Chikamai, B.N., Githiomi, J.K., Gachathi, F.N. & Njenga, M.G., undated. Commercial timber resources of Kenya. Kenya Forestry Research Institute (KEFRI), Nairobi, Kenya. 164 pp.
• Coates Palgrave, K., 1983. Trees of southern Africa. 2nd Edition. Struik Publishers, Cape Town, South Africa. 959 pp.
• Goldblatt, P. & Briggs, B.G., 1979. Chromosome number in two primitive dicots, Xymalos monospora (Monimiaceae) and Piptocalyx moorei (Trimeniaceae). Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden 66(4): 898–899.
• Goldsmith, B. & Carter, D.T., 1992. Indigenous timbers of Zimbabwe. The Zimbabwe Bulletin of forestry research No. 9. Forestry Commission, Harare, Zimbabwe. 406 pp.
• Hanelt, P. & Institute of Plant Genetics and Crop Plant Research (Editors), 2001. Mansfeld’s encyclopedia of agricultural and horticultural crops (except ornamentals). 1st English edition. Springer Verlag, Berlin, Germany. 3645 pp.
• Hyde, M.A. & Wursten, B., 2011. Xymalos monospora. [Internet] Flora of Zimbabwe http://www.zimbabweflora.co.zw/ speciesdata/ genus.php?genus_id=603. Accessed December 2011.
• Iddi, S., Hamza, K.F.S., Ringo, W.N. & lshengoma, R.C., 1992. The suitability of some Tanzanian hardwoods for the manufacture of cement particleboards. Holz als Roh- und Werkstoff 50: 280–281.
• Lehouck, V., Spanhove, T., Colson, L., Adringa-Davis, A., Cordeiro, N.J. & Lens, L., 2009. Habitat disturbance reduces seed dispersal of a forest interior tree in a fragmented African cloud forest. Oikos 118: 1023 1034.
• Lehouck, V., Spanhove, T., Gonsamo, A., Cordeiro, N.J. & Lens, L., 2009. Spatial and temporal effects on recruitment of an Afromontane forest tree in a threatened fragmented ecosystem. Biological Conservation 142(3): 518 528.
• Lejju, J.B., 2004. Ecological recovery of an afromontane forest in southwestern Uganda. African Journal of Ecology 42, Supplement s1: 64–69.
• Léonard, J., 1951. Monimiaceae. In: Robyns, W., Staner, P., Demaret, F., Germain, R., Gilbert, G., Hauman, L., Homès, M., Jurion, F., Lebrun, J., Vanden Abeele, M. & Boutique, R. (Editors). Flore du Congo belge et du Ruanda-Urundi. Spermatophytes. Volume 2. Institut National pour l’Étude Agronomique du Congo belge, Brussels, Belgium. pp. 400–402.
• Lyaruu, H.V., Eliapenda, S. & Backéus, I., 2000. Floristic, structural and seed bank diversity of a dry Afromontane forest at Mafai, central Tanzania. Biodiversity and Conservation 9: 241–263.
• Moshi, M.J., Otieno, D.F., Mbabazi, P.K. & Weisheit, A., 2009. The ethnomedicine of the Haya people of Bugabo ward, Kagera Region, north western Tanzania. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 5: 24.
• Msanga, H.P., 1998. Seed germination of indigenous trees in Tanzania: including notes on seed processing, storage and plant uses. Canadian Forest Service, Edmonton, Canada. 292 pp.
• Oginuma, K. & Tobe, H., 2006. Chromosome evolution in the Laurales based on analyses of original and published data. Journal of Plant Research 119(4): 309 320.
• Renner, S.S., Strijk, J.S., Strasberg, D. & Thébaud, C., 2010. Biogeography of the Monimiaceae (Laurales): a role for East Gondwana and long-distance dispersal, but not West Gondwana. Journal of Biogeography 37(7): 1227–1238.

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Sources of illustration

• Chikamai, B.N., Githiomi, J.K., Gachathi, F.N. & Njenga, M.G., undated. Commercial timber resources of Kenya. Kenya Forestry Research Institute (KEFRI), Nairobi, Kenya. 164 pp.
• Léonard, J., 1951. Monimiaceae. In: Robyns, W., Staner, P., Demaret, F., Germain, R., Gilbert, G., Hauman, L., Homès, M., Jurion, F., Lebrun, J., Vanden Abeele, M. & Boutique, R. (Editors). Flore du Congo belge et du Ruanda-Urundi. Spermatophytes. Volume 2. Institut National pour l’Étude Agronomique du Congo belge, Brussels, Belgium. pp. 400–402.
• Verdcourt, B., 1968. Monimiaceae. In: Milne-Redhead, E. & Polhill, R.M. (Editors). Flora of Tropical East Africa. Crown Agents for Oversea Governments and Administrations, London, United Kingdom. 4 pp.

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Author(s)

•	W. Mojeremane Department of Crop Science and Production, Botswana College of Agriculture, Private Bag 0027, Gaborone, Botswana

Editors

•	R.H.M.J. Lemmens PROTA Network Office Europe, Wageningen University, P.O. Box 341, 6700 AH Wageningen, Netherlands
•	D. Louppe CIRAD, Département Environnements et Sociétés, Cirad es-dir, Campus international de Baillarguet, TA C 105 / D (Bât. C, Bur. 113), 34398 Montpellier Cédex 5, France
•	A.A. Oteng-Amoako Forestry Research Institute of Ghana (FORIG), University P.O. Box 63, KNUST, Kumasi, Ghana

Associate editors

•	E.A. Obeng Forestry Research Institute of Ghana (FORIG), University P.O. Box 63, KNUST, Kumasi, Ghana

Photo editor

•	G.H. Schmelzer PROTA Network Office Europe, Wageningen University, P.O. Box 341, 6700 AH Wageningen, Netherlands

Correct citation of this article

Mojeremane, W., 2012. Xymalos monospora (Harv.) Baill. ex Warb. [Internet] Record from PROTA4U. Lemmens, R.H.M.J., Louppe, D. & Oteng-Amoako, A.A. (Editors). PROTA (Plant Resources of Tropical Africa / Ressources végétales de l’Afrique tropicale), Wageningen, Netherlands. <http://www.prota4u.org/search.asp>. Accessed .

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