Anthonotha fragrans (Baker f.) Exell

Family

Caesalpiniaceae (Leguminosae - Caesalpinioideae)

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Chromosome number

2n = 28

Synonyms

Macrolobium fragrans Baker f. (1928).

Vernacular names

Origin and geographic distribution

Anthonotha fragrans is distributed from Guinea eastward to DR Congo, and south to Gabon, Congo and Cabinda (Angola).

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Uses

The wood, known as ‘kibakoko’ in Liberia, is used for construction, joinery, crates and tool handles. It is particularly suitable for flooring, panelling and furniture.

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Properties

The heartwood is yellowish brown to brown with dark brown streaks, and indistinctly or fairly distinctly demarcated from the whitish to greyish yellow, about 15 cm wide sapwood. The grain is usually straight, texture moderately coarse.
The wood is medium-weight to fairly heavy, with a density of 600–850 kg/m³ at 12% moisture content. In drying it is susceptible to warping and to mould and blue-stain attacks. Boards of 2.5 cm thick can be dried to 25% moisture content in about 50 days. The rates of shrinkage are moderate, from green to oven dry 3.4–6.8% radial and 7.3–9.4% tangential. Once dry, the wood is unstable in service.
At 12% moisture content, the modulus of rupture is (91–)157–182 N/mm², modulus of elasticity 10,950–15,400 N/mm², compression parallel to grain (44–)52–73 N/mm², shear 8.5 N/mm², cleavage 17.5 N/mm and Chalais-Meudon side hardness 7.2. The wood is easy to saw, although saw teeth and cutting edges may blunt rapidly. Upon sawing, fresh sapwood exudes a slightly sticky, whitish to creamy exudate. The wood usually planes and finishes well. It has a tendency to split upon nailing. The wood is moderately durable and susceptible to fungal attacks, and liable to borer and Lyctus attacks. In field tests in Liberia, sticks were rotten after 3 years. The heartwood is resistant to impregnation with preservatives, the sapwood moderately resistant.

Description

Evergreen or briefly deciduous, medium-sized to large tree up to 45 m tall; bole usually straight and cylindrical, branchless for up to 25 m, up to 130 cm in diameter, often slightly fluted at base or with small buttresses; bark smooth to scaly or slightly fissured, yellowish to greyish brown, inner bark fibrous, pale brown to pinkish or reddish brown; crown rounded or umbrella-shaped, dense; twigs rusty brown short-hairy. Leaves arranged spirally, paripinnately compound with (1–)3–4(–5) pairs of leaflets; stipules oblong, united, 6–7 mm long, soon caducous; petiole 0.5–1.5(–4) cm long, rachis (1.5–)5–15(–28) cm long; petiolules (2–)3–5(–7) mm long; leaflets opposite, elliptical to oblong, up to 18(–47) cm × 7(–15) cm, obtuse to rounded or slightly cordate at base, rounded to slightly notched, obtuse or short-acuminate at apex, silvery to pale brown short-hairy below, pinnately veined with 12–30 pairs of lateral veins. Inflorescence an axillary slender panicle up to 30(–40) cm long, brown short-hairy. Flowers bisexual or functionally male, zygomorphic, 5-merous, with 2 firm, elliptical bracteoles up to 6 mm × 4 mm at base; pedicel 3–5 mm long; sepals oblong-triangular, up to 3.5 mm long, 2 partly fused, others free, glabrous; petals unequal, 1 large with claw 2.5–4 mm long and deeply lobed lamina 5–6 mm × 4 mm, others small, 1–1.5 mm long; stamens 3, 9–10 mm long, rudimentary stamens 6, up to 1.5 mm long; ovary superior, sessile, 3 mm long, velvety hairy, 1-celled, style about as long stamens. Fruit an ovoid-ellipsoid to nearly globose pod 5.5–11 cm × 2.5–3.5 cm, pointed at apex, prominently veined, dark brown short-hairy, 1–3-seeded. Seeds ellipsoid to pyramidal or lens-shaped, slightly flattened, c. 4 cm × 3 cm, seed coat firm, smooth, dull brown. Seedling with hypogeal germination, with cotyledons remaining in seed coat; epicotyl 7–17(–22) cm long, with 4–10 scales; leaves alternate, first leaf with 1 pair of leaflets.

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Other botanical information

Anthonotha comprises 17 species and is almost completely confined to West and Central Africa, only extending to northern Angola and western Tanzania. Gabon (with 12 species) and Cameroon (10 species) are richest.

Anatomy

Wood-anatomical description (IAWA hardwood codes):
Growth rings: 1: growth ring boundaries distinct; 2: growth ring boundaries indistinct or absent. Vessels: 5: wood diffuse-porous; 13: simple perforation plates; 22: intervessel pits alternate; 23: shape of alternate pits polygonal; 26: intervessel pits medium (7–10 μm); (27: intervessel pits large (≥ 10 μm)); 29: vestured pits; 30: vessel-ray pits with distinct borders; similar to intervessel pits in size and shape throughout the ray cell; 42: mean tangential diameter of vessel lumina 100–200 μm; 43: mean tangential diameter of vessel lumina ≥ 200 μm; 46: ≤ 5 vessels per square millimetre; (47: 5–20 vessels per square millimetre); 58: gums and other deposits in heartwood vessels. Tracheids and fibres: 61: fibres with simple to minutely bordered pits; 66: non-septate fibres present; 69: fibres thin- to thick-walled; 70: fibres very thick-walled. Axial parenchyma: 80: axial parenchyma aliform; 81: axial parenchyma lozenge-aliform; 82: axial parenchyma winged-aliform; 83: axial parenchyma confluent; 85: axial parenchyma bands more than three cells wide; 89: axial parenchyma in marginal or in seemingly marginal bands; 92: four (3–4) cells per parenchyma strand; 93: eight (5–8) cells per parenchyma strand. Rays: 96: rays exclusively uniseriate; 97: ray width 1–3 cells; 104: all ray cells procumbent; (106: body ray cells procumbent with one row of upright and/or square marginal cells); 115: 4–12 rays per mm. Secretory elements and cambial variants: 128: axial canals in short tangential lines; 131: intercellular canals of traumatic origin. Mineral inclusions: 136: prismatic crystals present; 142: prismatic crystals in chambered axial parenchyma cells.
(C. Essien, P. Baas & H. Beeckman)

Growth and development

Anthonotha fragrans grows slowly. Saplings reached an average height of 1.8 m 4 years after planting. The trees are often leafless for a short period only; in Sierra Leone new leaves usually develop in December–January, in about the same period of flowering. In Guinea, Côte d’Ivoire and Ghana Anthonotha fragrans flowers in November–December, and ripe fuits are found in January–April. It has been reported that the seeds are commonly eaten by animals such as monkeys, which may seriously limit regeneration. The roots are associated with ectomycorrhizae and occasionally also with arbuscular mycorrhizae.

Ecology

Anthonotha fragrans occurs most commonly in evergreen forest but also in moist semi-deciduous forest, in primary as well as old secondary forest, up to 800 m altitude. It is most abundant in sites with acid soils and a low soil fertility.

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Propagation and planting

There are 22–50 seeds per kg. The seeds start germinating 1–6 months after sowing. The germination rate is usually low, but may be up to 60%. Seedlings need some lateral shade, which should be slowly reduced. In the nursery seeds and young seedlings should be protected against rodents, which commonly eat them. Seedlings are ready for planting into the field after one year.

Management

In most regions within its distribution area, Anthonotha fragrans occurs in low density in the forest, often occurring in small groups. In Cameroon an average density of 0.2 stems of more than 15 cm diameter has been recorded per ha, with an average wood volume of 0.9 m³/ha. In Gabon Anthonotha fragrans occurs scattered and is comparatively rare, and this is also the case in most countries in West Africa. However, it has been recorded as locally common in Côte d’Ivoire and in Liberia the standing stock of trees of more than 50 cm bole diameter has been estimated at 4.8 million m³, corresponding to 1.2 m³/ha of wood on average.

Yield

In Sierra Leone it has been reported that a bole of Anthonotha fragrans may yield 12 m³ of timber.

Handling after harvest

Logs should be removed from the forest immediately after harvesting or treated with preservatives, to prevent attacks by fungi and borers, to which the wood is very susceptible. In Liberia it has been reported that freshly harvested logs sink in water.

Genetic resources and breeding

There are no indications that Anthonotha fragrans is threatened at present, although it is rarely common and usually occurs scattered in small groups. It has a wide distribution and in most regions has not been subject to selective logging.

Prospects

In most regions within its distribution area, Anthonotha fragrans has not been considered a timber tree of commercial importance because it usually occurs in too low densities in the forest, and its wood is susceptible to fungal attacks and may exude a sticky substance that may interfere with sawing. However, it may have good prospects for the production of general-purpose wood and veneer when proper methods to overcome these limitations of the wood can be developed. Moreover, information is still needed on growth rates and methods to improve regeneration to be able to draw conclusions about possibilities for sustainable exploitation from natural forest.

Major references

• Awokou, K.S. & Kouchadé, A.C., 2006. Valorisation du bois d’Anthonotha fragrans par la caractérisation de ses principales et mécaniques. In: 3ème Atelier Scientifique National de la Recherches Agricoles du Bénin. Institut Nationale des Recherches Agricoles au Bénin. p. 55.
• Breteler, F.J., 2010. Revision of the African genus Anthonotha (Leguminosae, Caesalpinioideae). Plant Ecology and Evolution 143(1): 70–99.
• Burkill, H.M., 1995. The useful plants of West Tropical Africa. 2nd Edition. Volume 3, Families J–L. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, Richmond, United Kingdom. 857 pp.
• Dudek, S., Förster, B. & Klissenbauer, K., 1981. Lesser known Liberian timber species. Description of physical and mechanical properties, natural durability, treatability, workability and suggested uses. GTZ, Eschborn, Germany. 168 pp.
• Durand, P.Y., 1978. Propriétés physiques et mécaniques des bois de Côte d’Ivoire: moyennes d’espèce et variabilité intraspécifique. Centre Technique Forestier Tropical, Abidjan, Côte d’Ivoire. 70 pp.
• Hubert, D., undated. Sylviculture des essences de forêts denses humides d’Afrique de l’Ouest. 187 pp.
• Sallenave, P., 1971. Propriétés physiques et mecaniques des bois tropicaux. Deuxième supplément. Centre Technique Forestier Tropical, Nogent-sur-Marne, France. 128 pp.
• Siepel, A., Poorter, L. & Hawthorne, W.D., 2004. Ecological profiles of large timber species. In: Poorter, L., Bongers, F., Kouamé, F.N. & Hawthorne, W.D. (Editors). Biodiversity of West African forests. An ecological atlas of woody plant species. CABI Publishing, CAB International, Wallingford, United Kingdom. pp. 391–445.
• Vivien, J. & Faure, J.J., 1985. Arbres des forêts denses d’Afrique Centrale. Agence de Coopération Culturelle et Technique, Paris, France. 565 pp.
• Voorhoeve, A.G., 1979. Liberian high forest trees. A systematic botanical study of the 75 most important or frequent high forest trees, with reference to numerous related species. Agricultural Research Reports 652, 2nd Impression. Centre for Agricultural Publishing and Documentation, Wageningen, Netherlands. 416 pp.

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Other references

• Akoègninou, A., van der Burg, W.J. & van der Maesen, L.J.G. (Editors), 2006. Flore analytique du Bénin. Backhuys Publishers, Leiden, Netherlands. 1034 pp.
• Aubréville, A., 1959. La flore forestière de la Côte d’Ivoire. Deuxième édition révisée. Tome premier. Publication No 15. Centre Technique Forestier Tropical, Nogent-sur-Marne, France. 369 pp.
• Aubréville, A., 1968. Légumineuses - Caesalpinioidées (Leguminosae - Caesalpinioideae). Flore du Gabon. Volume 15. Muséum National d’Histoire Naturelle, Paris, France. 362 pp.
• Aubréville, A., 1970. Légumineuses - Césalpinioidées (Leguminosae - Caesalpinioideae). Flore du Cameroun. Volume 9. Muséum National d’Histoire Naturelle, Paris, France. 339 pp.
• Breteler, F.J., 2008. Anthonotha and Isomacrolobium (Leguminosae, Caesalpinioideae): two distinct genera. Systematics and Geography of Plants 78: 137–144.
• de Koning, J., 1983. La forêt de Banco. Part 2: La Flore. Mededelingen Landbouwhogeschool Wageningen 83–1. Wageningen, Netherlands. 921 pp.
• de la Mensbruge, G., 1966. La germination et les plantules des essences arborées de la forêt dense humide de la Côte d’Ivoire. Centre Technique Forestier Tropical, Nogent-sur-Marne, France. 389 pp.
• de Saint-Aubin, G., 1963. La forêt du Gabon. Publication No 21 du Centre Technique Forestier Tropical, Nogent-sur-Marne, France. 208 pp.
• Hawthorne, W.D., 1995. Ecological profiles of Ghanaian forest trees. Tropical Forestry Papers 29. Oxford Forestry Institute, Department of Plant Sciences, University of Oxford, United Kingdom. 345 pp.
• Hawthorne, W. & Jongkind, C., 2006. Woody plants of western African forests: a guide to the forest trees, shrubs and lianes from Senegal to Ghana. Kew Publishing, Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, United Kingdom. 1023 pp.
• Keay, R.W.J., 1989. Trees of Nigeria. A revised version of Nigerian trees (1960, 1964) by Keay, R.W.J., Onochie, C.F.A. & Stanfield, D.P. Clarendon Press, Oxford, United Kingdom. 476 pp.
• Onguene, N.A. & Kuyper, T.W., 2001. Mycorrhizal associations in the rain forest of South Cameroon. Forest Ecology and Management 140: 277–287.
• Savill, P.S. & Fox, J.E.D., 1967. Trees of Sierra Leone. Forest Department, Freetown, Sierra Leone. 316 pp.
• Tailfer, Y., 1989. La forêt dense d’Afrique centrale. Identification pratique des principaux arbres. Tome 2. CTA, Wageningen, Pays Bas. pp. 465–1271.
• Taylor, C.J., 1960. Synecology and silviculture in Ghana. Thomas Nelson and Sons, Edinburgh, United Kingdom. 418 pp.
• Wilczek, R., Léonard, J., Hauman, L., Hoyle, A.C., Steyaert, R., Gilbert, G. & Boutique, R., 1952. Caesalpiniaceae. In: Robyns, W., Staner, P., Demaret, F., Germain, R., Gilbert, G., Hauman, L., Homès, M., Jurion, F., Lebrun, J., Vanden Abeele, M. & Boutique, R. (Editors). Flore du Congo belge et du Ruanda-Urundi. Spermatophytes. Volume 3. Institut National pour l’Étude Agronomique du Congo belge, Brussels, Belgium. pp. 234–554.
• Wilks, C. & Issembé, Y., 2000. Les arbres de la Guinée Equatoriale: Guide pratique d’identification: région continentale. Projet CUREF, Bata, Guinée Equatoriale. 546 pp.

Sources of illustration

• Voorhoeve, A.G., 1979. Liberian high forest trees. A systematic botanical study of the 75 most important or frequent high forest trees, with reference to numerous related species. Agricultural Research Reports 652, 2nd Impression. Centre for Agricultural Publishing and Documentation, Wageningen, Netherlands. 416 pp.
• Wilks, C. & Issembé, Y., 2000. Les arbres de la Guinée Equatoriale: Guide pratique d’identification: région continentale. Projet CUREF, Bata, Guinée Equatoriale. 546 pp.

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Author(s)

•	R.H.M.J. Lemmens PROTA Network Office Europe, Wageningen University, P.O. Box 341, 6700 AH Wageningen, Netherlands

Editors

•	R.H.M.J. Lemmens PROTA Network Office Europe, Wageningen University, P.O. Box 341, 6700 AH Wageningen, Netherlands
•	D. Louppe CIRAD, Département Environnements et Sociétés, Cirad es-dir, Campus international de Baillarguet, TA C 105 / D (Bât. C, Bur. 113), 34398 Montpellier Cédex 5, France
•	A.A. Oteng-Amoako Forestry Research Institute of Ghana (FORIG), University P.O. Box 63, KNUST, Kumasi, Ghana

Associate editors

•	E.A. Obeng Forestry Research Institute of Ghana (FORIG), University P.O. Box 63, KNUST, Kumasi, Ghana

Correct citation of this article

Lemmens, R.H.M.J., 2011. Anthonotha fragrans (Baker f.) Exell & Hillc. [Internet] Record from PROTA4U. Lemmens, R.H.M.J., Louppe, D. & Oteng-Amoako, A.A. (Editors). PROTA (Plant Resources of Tropical Africa / Ressources végétales de l’Afrique tropicale), Wageningen, Netherlands. <http://www.prota4u.org/search.asp>. Accessed .

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